Release in nature
Deliberate introduction of a species into the wild, for example to create or support a fishery.
e.g. Ruditapes philippinarum, introduced for clam harvesting
Non-indigenous species under the SPA/BD Protocol
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The Mediterranean is one of the seas most affected by marine biological invasions. The SPA/BD Protocol of the Barcelona Convention commits its Parties to regulate new introductions and to eradicate harmful ones. The obligation mirrors Article 8(h) of the global Convention on Biological Diversity, and MAMIAS is one of the tools that helps put it into practice.
- 1976Barcelona Convention adoptedProtection against pollution
- 1982SPA ProtocolSpecially protected areas
- 1992Convention on Biological DiversityGlobal · Art. 8(h)
- 1995Barcelona Convention amendedMarine environment and coastal regionSPA/BD Protocol adoptedReplaces the 1982 Protocol
- 1999SPA/BD Protocol in forceLegally binding
What counts as a non-indigenous species?
Non-indigenous species (NIS)
A species, subspecies or lower taxon introduced outside its natural past or present range by human activity, directly or indirectly. Also called alien or exotic species.
Invasive NIS
A non-indigenous species that spreads and harms biodiversity, ecosystem services, the economy or human health. Only a fraction of NIS become invasive.
Cryptogenic species
A species whose origin cannot be established with certainty as native or introduced. MAMIAS records these separately so they are not over- or under-counted.
Lessepsian migrant
A Red Sea or Indo-Pacific species that entered the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal, opened in 1869. This corridor is the largest single source of Mediterranean NIS.
Article 13 in two obligations
Art. 13 · paragraph 1
Regulate and prohibit introductions
Parties take all appropriate measures to regulate the intentional or accidental introduction of non-indigenous or genetically modified species into the wild, and prohibit those that may harm ecosystems, habitats or species in the Protocol area.
PreventRegulateProhibit
Art. 13 · paragraph 2
Eradicate harmful species already present
Parties endeavour to implement all possible measures to eradicate species already introduced when a scientific assessment shows they cause, or are likely to cause, damage to ecosystems, habitats or species.
AssessEradicate
Inside Specially Protected Areas, Art. 6 adds a site-level duty: Parties regulate the introduction of any species not indigenous to the protected area, as well as genetically modified species. Art. 3 sets the general obligation to protect, preserve and manage biological diversity, which frames both.
How the SPA/BD Protocol fits within the CBD
The CBD sets the global commitment. The Barcelona Convention and its Protocols turn it into regional, legally binding obligations for the Mediterranean, and the SPA/BD Protocol is where the duties on non-indigenous species are written down.
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
GlobalArt. 8(h) prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate alien species that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species. Operationalised by the 2002 Guiding Principles on invasive alien species.
Barcelona Convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP/MAP)
Regional frameworkThe 1976 Convention, amended in 1995, and its seven Protocols. UNEP/MAP coordinates the system, with SPA/RAC in Tunis supporting biodiversity work.
SPA/BD Protocol (1995)
Regional legal obligationArt. 13 regulate, prohibit and eradicate · Art. 6 controls inside protected areas
Prevention first, eradication second, control last
1 · Prevention
Stopping a species before it arrives is the cheapest and most effective option. It covers ballast water treatment, hull-fouling management, checks on aquaculture stock and controls on the ornamental trade.
2 · Early detection and rapid response
Eradication is only realistic while a population is small and local. That makes early records essential: one confirmed sighting reported to MAMIAS can trigger a response.
3 · Containment and long-term control
Once a species is established at sea, eradication is rarely possible. Management then aims to limit spread and impacts, for example through targeted removal in protected areas or commercial use of species such as lionfish.
How species reach the Mediterranean
Preventing introductions under Article 13(1) means acting on pathways. The CBD groups them into six categories, from deliberate introduction to natural spread. IMAP and MAMIAS use the same classification.
Escape from confinement
A species kept in captivity, in aquaculture farms or aquaria, escapes into the wild.
e.g. Caulerpa taxifolia, first recorded off Monaco in 1984
Transport · contaminant
A species carried along with a traded commodity, such as parasites or algae moved with live shellfish stock.
e.g. Sargassum muticum, arrived with oyster imports
Transport · stowaway
A species travelling inside or attached to a vector, for example in ballast water or as hull fouling.
e.g. Mnemiopsis leidyi
Corridor
A species moves on its own through an artificial waterway that links previously separate seas.
e.g. Lagocephalus sceleratus, Siganus luridus
Unaided
Natural spread from a neighbouring region where the species was itself introduced by one of the other pathways.
e.g. westward spread of Pterois miles
SPA/BD provisions and their global counterparts
The Protocol was adopted three years after the CBD and follows its logic closely. The table pairs each Mediterranean provision with the matching CBD text.
| Theme | SPA/BD Protocol | CBD text |
|---|---|---|
| Preventing introductions | Art. 13(1) regulate intentional and accidental introductions, prohibit harmful ones | Art. 8(h) prevent the introduction of threatening alien species |
| Eradication and control | Art. 13(2) eradicate damaging species after scientific assessment | Art. 8(h) control or eradicate; Guiding Principles 12 to 15 |
| Protected areas | Art. 6 regulate non-indigenous species inside SPAs and SPAMIs | Art. 8(a)–(c) establish and manage protected areas |
| Knowledge and monitoring | Art. 15 inventories · Art. 20 scientific research | Art. 7 identification and monitoring |
| Precaution | Risk-based prohibition in Art. 13(1) | Guiding Principle 1, precautionary approach |
Where MAMIAS sits in the policy cycle
Article 13 can only be applied to species that are known to be present. The cycle starts with a record: a diver, fisher or researcher spots a species outside its native range.
MAMIAS validates and stores the record with its location, date, pathway and literature source. Countries draw on this data for their IMAP reports under Ecological Objective 2, which asks whether new introductions are being kept to a minimum.
Regional assessments, such as the Mediterranean Quality Status Report, then feed the decisions taken by the Contracting Parties. Those decisions update the action plans and national measures, and monitoring checks whether they work.
- Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (1995), Articles 3, 6, 13, 15 and 20. UNEP/MAP.
- Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), Articles 7 and 8(h).
- CBD Decision VI/23, Guiding Principles for the prevention, introduction and mitigation of impacts of alien species (2002).
- UNEP/MAP Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme (IMAP), Ecological Objective 2, Common Indicator 6.